| According to China's current land system,land expropriation is the only way to transform rural collective land into urban state-owned land. Expropriation system influences the overall situation of economic and social development, and as a result, attracts much attention. The 18th CPC National Congress points out that it's a must to reform the land expropriation system and increase peasant' share of gain in land value; the Third Plenary Session of the 18th CCCPC puts forward that China should reduce the scope of land expropriation, regulate expropriation procedures, and establish appropriate allocation mechanism considering the interests of the country, the collective as well as individuals. In 2015 , the General Office of the CPC Central Committee and the General Office of the State Council issued "Opinions on rural land expropriation, entering of collective Mercantile construction land into the market, and pilot work of the homestead system reform" to propose that we must establish the social stability risk assessment system,publicize land expropriation information, and consummate the safeguard mechanism, which is supposed to is be reasonable, standard and multi-dimensional, for those peasant whose land has been expropriated. With the acceleration of urbanization, land expropriation has become a regular social activity. Though it promotes the economic development,meanwhile it also brings about many social problems, of which, the prominent ones are decline in living standards of the expropriated peasant, lack of guarantee in their livelihood in the long run, delay in under-urbanization and even inability to realize urbanization.Social conflicts arising from these problems are quite common. Expropriation policies which infringe rights and interests of the expropriated peasant and impair social harmony are unable to meet the needs of social transformation in the new era. The goal of new urbanization is to let peasant share the achievements of economical development so as to realize overall improvement of social welfare and social efficiency. Its core is human's urbanization and man-centered social efficiency has become an important factor in assessing expropriation policies. Therefore, research on land expropriation social efficiency has positive practical significance on making and consummating expropriation policies.This study takes Nanjing City as an example. Starting with social costs and social benefits, based on the landless peasants social survey data, it tries to build an analysis framework and measurement system for the social efficiency of land expropriation and requisition. First, it combs land levy system changes. According to the issued time, it divided the land levy policy of Nanjing since 1996 into 4 stages, showing the policy features of each stage, summing up the preference and tendency of policy-making and policy-perfecting. Second, from the perspective of the landless peasants, it systematically analyzed the social influence of land expropriation and requisition according to 3 aspects,i.e. social survey results, living and working standards and the degree of integrated into city life. It defined the concept of social efficiency of land expropriation and requisition based on the definition of Adaptive Efficiency. Based on the results of analyzing social influence of land expropriation and requisition, it concluded the influential factors of social efficiency of land expropriation and requisition. Third, it defined the meaning of social efficiency of land expropriation and requisition and built land levy social cost and social returns index system. Using data envelopment analysis (DEA), it analyzed social efficiency assessment of each policy stage. According to the results of compared analysis, it provided practical reasons for making the land expropriation and requisition policy of higher social efficiency.Studies include: (1) using the concept of Adaptive efficiency in institutional economics define the concept of social efficiency of land expropriation. Social efficiency of land expropriation refers to how land expropriation systems adapt to the social development needs of the adjustment problem is a reflection of institutional change efficiency adapted to social needs in the process of time.(2) analysis of the social factors affecting the efficiency of land expropriation. From the perspective of peasant whose land was expropriated, from three aspects such as social survey results of those peasant' perception of land policy,implementation situation of compensating and placing those peasant for the purpose of life and work in peace and contentment, and degree of involvement in city life to test the urbanization of those peasant, analyze social effects by land expropriation when implementing different policy. (3) The definition of connotations of social efficiency of land expropriation, which is the ratio of social benefits to social costs in land expropriation;by choosing a proxy indicator and proxy variables of social benefits and social costs in land expropriation, build index system of social efficiency of land expropriation. (4) Measure the number of evaluation of social efficiency of land expropriation, based on which main factors affecting the social efficiency of land expropriation and its impact will be determined. (5) Explore social approaches to improving the efficiency of land expropriation,and put forward relevant policy recommendations.Research methods mainly include: (1) Questionnaire. The questionnaire targets at peasants whose land has been expropriated, uses the method of face-to-face interview and gets objective and true researching materials. (2) Ordering model. In the questionnaire,peasants will be divided into 5 levels, respectively 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 in the measurement model and constitute multi-ordering model, thus screen out the influence factors of land expropriation by significance testing. (3) The data envelopment analysis. Use DEA model to test social efficiency of land expropriation policy at different stages and use super-efficiency DEA model to test the evaluation of social benefits at different stages. (4)Comparative analysis. Analyze the social impact of land expropriation at different stages.Through theoretical analysis and empirical research, we draw the following conclusions: (1) the compensation standard of land requisition and resettlement are more reasonable. Since 1996, Nanjing land policy implementation has gong through 4 stages:issue 131 has been carried out from 1996 to 2000; issue 86 from 2011 to 2004; issue 93 from 2004 to 2010; issue 264 from 2011 to the present. These implementations show an increase of compensation standard, changes of methods of resettlement, the adjustments of compensation and resettlement, the standardization of collective economic organizations member identification, and the more perfect social security system. (2) Adjusted land policy meets the interests of landless peasant. With the adjusted land policy, landless peasant are more satisfied. (3) Social factors affecting the efficiency of land expropriation are diversified but focused. From a policy point of view, in entity, efficiency of the compensation criterion for land expropriation has a greater social influence, followed by the social security system and the way of resettlement; procedurally, public information has a significant impact on social efficiency. From the perspective of policy implement, whether the social cost is in accordance with the agreement on all timely compensation and resettlement has a greater impact on social efficiency; as far as the social gains, after the land requisition, water, gas as well as other infrastructure improvement and perfect medical care, education, public services and commercial network layout have a greater influence on the social efficiency. (4) The social efficiency of every land expropriation policy stage is gradually increased. DEA model results showed that social efficiency values are "1", and relaxation index variable is "0" in the land acquisition phase. This shows that the social efficiency of land expropriation policy is DEA effective description in the four stages from 1996 to the present. The social efficiency index in each stage is in good order. Super-efficiency DEA model results show that each phase of social efficiency of land expropriation is, in general, on the rise. In its 1996-2000 implementation phase of the issue 86, the performance evaluation value is 1.006; in 2000-2004 of issue 86 is 1.747; in 2004-2010 of issue 93 is 1.602; from 2011 to the present of issue 264 is 2.457. While the current issue 264 phase reaches the highest values of social efficiency, it still has much to be modified.Based on the research, the author gives the following suggestions: (1) The compensation standard for land requisition should be improved, and land value-added income distribution mechanism should be established. Applying Marxism rent theory, we should establish function relation between radiant intensity and distance of government-funded facilities, construct a three-dimensional model of the radiant intensity of the facilities, calculate the amount of investment of the plots of land within the facilities' range of radiation, and add the investment profits. By doing so, the government's share of the land value-added income from selling a certain plot of land can be calculated. Besides government's share, the rest of the land value-added income should be allocated to collective economic organization and peasant of land expropriation. Enough public development funds should be allocated to collective economic organization, and the rest should be allocated to peasant of land expropriation. The establishment of land value-added income distribution mechanism highlights the main membership of collective land ownership,grants better expectation to peasant of land expropriation, encourages landless peasant to participate in the whole process of land expropriation, and actively promotes the implementation of land expropriation. (2) We should focus on the process, publicize information, and establish and improve information sharing and feedback mechanisms.Without procedural justice, there is no entity justice. Procedural justice includes links in place and information publicity, especially information publicity. Information should be publicized during the whole process including notification before land expropriation, the announcement of land expropriation, registration of compensation, and notification of land compensation and resettlement programs. In this way, we can effectively deliver information of government land expropriation to every peasant involved so as to guarantee peasant' rights to know, to participate. At the same time, the wills and aspirations of peasant of land expropriation can be fed back to the government so as to promote the government to develop a land policy more in line with the pubic opinion. (3) We should provide equal access to social welfare, and establish a sound social security system.Attentions should also be paid to the development of high social efficiency of land expropriation policy which will fully integrate landless peasant into the social security system for urban workers, so that landless peasant will equally enjoy social welfare as urban residents, working age landless peasant will also enjoy unemployment insurance for urban workers, and pension age landless peasant can enjoy the retirement pension insurance for urban workers. The unification of social security system helps landless peasant gain a sense of identity as city residents, promote their integration into urban life, and achieve the urbanization of population. (4) We should change the way of concentrated relocation, and let landless peasant choose their place of residence freely by way of monetary compensation, so that they can actively integrate into urban life. Concentrated relocation invisibly isolates the peasant of land expropriation and urban residents, and hinders the citizenization of landless peasant. By changing the way of concentrated relocation, and using monetary compensation, landless peasant can freely choose their places of residents based on their preference and economic state. Living separately and as individual, landless peasant will be more easily influenced by urban living environment, change their life styles unconsciously and actively adapt to and integrated into city life. (5)We should develop differentiated policy, classify the resettlement landless peasant, and establish special support fund. If the labor skills of most landless peasant have been alienated, or many peasant have already been employed in the city, we should more consider material capital compensation, weaken or stop providing employment training to help improve the level of human capital. If most landless farms lack non-agriculture labor skills and can't be employed in the city, we should strengthen social security, focus on job training, and improve the level of human capital. For those who live in straitened circumstances, because of land expropriation, they should be supported through the establishment of special assistance fund, i.e. the use of social capital. Physical capital, human capital and social capital are interchangeable, the organic combination of which will promote social efficiency of land expropriation. |
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