| The Learning-as-Design (LaD) approach was implemented to three computer-supported graphic design courses, two of which also adopted the Cognitive Apprenticeship Model (CAM). Reflection was reinforced in one of the two courses that used both LaD and CAM. The purpose was to investigate the effectiveness of these pedagogical methods on students' development of expertise, in particular the growth in design knowledge, creativity, and design management skills. Non-parametric statistics and qualitative data analysis showed that: (1) with LaD, students' design knowledge, awareness of the importance of design knowledge base, memory of incidental information, fluent and original ability of creativity, creative strengths, critical thinking ability, time spent in conceptualization and thinking for appropriate cognitive and metacognitive strategies, and motivation were enhanced; (2) with CAM incorporated in teaching with LaD (LaD + CAM), students gained further improvement in design knowledge, fluency, and elaboration, while they developed deeper understanding of the subject matter and paid more attention to conceptual development and reasoning; (3) with reflection reinforced in learning (LaD + CAM + RR), students grew in their abstracting and elaborating skills, planning, help seeking, and rehearsal skills, and enhanced the understanding about graphic design usage, design standards, and social factors affecting graphic design. |
